YVaT TO ZYM | THE ENCYCLOPAIDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768—1771. SECOND a Pp ten » «1977-1784. THIRD mn a eighteen “f 1788—1797. FOURTH Fy} PP twenty A 1801— 1810, * FIFTH 3 a twenty 5 1815—1817. SIXTH “a * twenty os 1823-1824. SEVENTH - a twenty-one yi 1830—1842. _ EIGHTH ;, 35 twenty-two i 1853-—1860. NINTH i hi twenty-five ss 1875— 1889. TENTH vi ninth edition and eleven supplementary volumes, 1902—1903. ELEVENTH ‘, published in twenty-nine volumes, Igio—IgiI. }. Fe COPYRIGHT “MY CSUILET by 1 THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS wet, NA) ee < UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE re \ is , i7 4 set ALL rights reserved . THE : ENCYCLOPA DIA BRITANNICA A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE .AND GENERAL INFORMATION ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XXVIII “VETCH to ZYMOTIC DISEASES Cambridge, England: at the University Press New York, 35 West 32nd Street IQI! ‘ TT, ca, | United States of Ameri 3 Copyright, \ ai» oes | INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XXVIII. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS,! WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. A. B. Go. ALFRED BrapLey Goucn, M.A., Pu.D. Sometime Casberd Scholar of St John’s College, Oxford. English Lector in the } Westphalia, Treaty of. University of Kiel, 1896-1905. A.C. S. ALGERNON CHARLES SWINBURNE. See the biographical article: SwriNBURNE, ALGERNON CHARLES. { webster, John. A.D. Mo. Anson DanieL Morse, M.A., LL.D. 7 Emeritus Professor of History at Amherst College, Mass. Professor at Amherst / Whig Party. College, 1877-1908. ; A. E. S. Artuur Everetr Surptey, M.A., D. Sc., F.R.S. Wasp (in part); Master of Christ’s College, Cambridge. Reader in Zoology, Cambridge University. Ww : p Joint-editor of the Cambridge Natural History. eevil (in part). A. F. B. ALDRED FARRER Barker, M.Sc. Wool, Worsted and Woollen Professor of Textile Industries at Bradford Technical College. Manufactures. A. F. B.* ARCHIBALD FRANK BECKE. Captain, Royal Field Artillery. Author of Introduction to the History of Tactics, | Waterloo Campaign. 1740-1905; &c. A. F. H. A. F. Hutrcntson, M.A. . 7 A Sometime Rector of the High School, Stirling. { Wanace, Sir William. A. F. L. Artuur Francis Leacu, M.A. Barrister-at-law, Middle Temple. Charity Commissioner for England and Wales. } Waynflete, William; Formerly Assistant-Secretary to the Board of Education. Fellow of Al! Souls | wijjiam of Wykeham College, Oxford, 1874-1881. Author of English Schools at the Reformation; &c. ‘ A. F. P. ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.Hist.S. , ‘ Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford. Professor of English History in the University Walsingham, Sir Francis; of London. Assistant-Editor of the Dictionary of. National Biography, 1893-1901. +, Wishart, George; Author of England under the Protector Somerset; Life of Thomas Cranmer; Henry | Wolsey, Cardinal. VITILI.; &c. A.M. C. AcNes Mary CLERKE. : : See the biographical article: CLERKE, AGNES M. Zodiac. Vulture; Wagtail; Warbler; Waxwing; Weaver-bird; A.N. ALFRED NEwTON, F.R.S. _ Wheatear; Whitethroat; See the biographical article: NEwTON, ALFRED. Wlgeon; Woodcock; Woodpecker; Wren; Wryneck; Zosterops. A. P. C. ARTHUR PHILEMON CoLemaNn, M.A., Pu.D., F.R.S. Professor of Geology in the University of Toronto. Geologist, Bureau of Mines, ~ Yukon Territory. Toronto, 1893-1910. Author of Reports of the Bureau of Mines of Ontario. A. Sy. ARTHUR SYMONS. Villiers de 1’Isle-Adam, See the biographical article: SyMons, ARTHUR. Comte de. A. S. C. ALan SumMMERLY COLE; C.B. Formerly Assistant-Secretary, Board of Education, South Kensington. Author of — Ornament in European Silks; Catalogue of Tapestry, Embroidery, Lace and Egyptian Weaving: Archaeology and Art. Textiles in the Victoria and Albert Museum, &c. A. S. P.-P. ANDREW SETH PrRINGLE-Pattison, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L. Weber’s Law; Wolff, Christian (i paré). Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. Gifford Lecturer in the University of Aberdeen, 1911. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of Man's Place in the Cosmos; The Philosophical Radicals; &c. A. v. 0. ALoys von ORELLI. Formerly Professor of Law in the University of Zirich. Author of Das Steatsrecht ; Veto. der schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft. 1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume. v 1997 B. H.-S. C. El. C.F. A. C. F. K. C. H. Ha. C. H. T.* Cc. K. W. C. L. K. Cc. R. B. Cc. W. R. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND. . nares ‘ Formerly Scholar of St John’s College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900. 1 Widukind; Witan. REv. ARTHUR Wottaston Hutton. : Rector of Bow Church, Cheapside, London. Formerly Librarian of the National c r Liberal Club. Author of Life of Cardinal Manning. Editor of Newman’s Lives of the Wiseman, Cardinal. English Saints; &c. : ALEXANDER Woop Renton, M.A., LL.B. Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of Encyclopaedia of the Laws of England. : BENJAMIN Ext Santu, A.M. Editor of the Century Dictionary. Formerly Instructor in Mathematics at Amherst College, Mass., and in Psychology at the Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore. Editor of the Century Cyclopaedia of Names; Century Atlas; &c. B. HECKSTALL-SMITH. Associate of the Institute of Naval Architects. Secretary of the International Yacht Racing Union; Secretary of the Yacht Racing Association. Yachting Editor of The Field. SIR CHARLES Norton Epccumpe Exsot, K.C.M.G., M.A., LL.D., D.C.L. Vice-Chancellor of Sheffield University. Formerly Fellow of Trinit College, Oxford. H.M.’s Commissioner and Commander-in-Chief for the British East Africa Protectorate; Agent and Consul-General at Zanzibar; Consul-Genéral for German East Africa, 1900-1904. ; CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON, . Formerly Scholar of Queen’s College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London (Royal Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbor. CHARLES FrANcIS KeEary, M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of The Vikings in Western Christendom; Norway and the Norwegians; &c. Waste. Whitney, William Dwight. Yachting. Yue-chi. Wilderness: Grant’s Campaign. Viking. CARLTON HunTLEY Hayes, A.M., Pu.D. Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. Member of the American Historical Association. Victor III. and IV. (Popes); Visconti (Family). CrAWForD Howe tt Toy, A.M., LL.D. f Wisdom, Book of; See the biographical article: Toy, CRawrorD HowELL. | Wisdom Literature. CHARLES KINGSLEY WEBSTER, M.A. . Fellow of King’s College, Cambridge. Whewell Scholar, 1907. { Vienna, Congress of- Warwick, Richard Beau- champ, Earl of; : Warwick, Richard Neville CHARLES Loner Kenge On, Me EPR iaer-Soc.., tie Earl of: . ‘ Assistant-Secretary to the Board o: ucation. Author of Life of Henry V. Editor peter ’ of Chronicles of Lendon and Stow’s Survey of London. t a Whittington, Richard; Worcester, John Tiptoft, Ear! of; York, Richard, Duke of. CHARLES RayMonD Beaztey, M.A., D.Litt., F-R.G.S., F.R.H1st.S. Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography. Zemarchus. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of Henry the Navigator; The Dawn of Modern Geography; &c. ; CHARLES .WALKER RosINsON, C.B., D.C.L. ; Major-General (retired). Assistant Military Secretary, Headquarters of the Army, } yjtoria, 1890-1892. Governor and Secretary, Royal Military Hospital, Chelsea, 1895- 1898. Author of Strategy of the Peninsular War; &c. Davin Binninc Monro, M.A., Litt.D. ie See the biographical article: MoNRO, DAVID BINNING. { wolf, Friedrich August. D F T Victoria, Tommasso L. da; ONALD FRANCIS TOVEY. “oR 5 Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The Classical Concerto, The Wagner: sg hy (in (ig Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical works. and Critica Pprectation, Weber: Critical Appreciation. Davip GEorcE Hocartu, M.A. : Keeper of the Ashmolean Musenm, Oxford, and Fellow of Magdalen College. Fellow Xanthus: of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1899 and 1903; is 3 Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at Athens, Zeitun. 1897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899. : Davin Hannay. " Fe see rics he Royal 3 Villeneuve; Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of the Raya Zumalacdrregul. Navy; Life of Emilio Castelar; &c. DvuKINFIELD Henry Scott, M.A., Px#.D., LL.D., F.R.S. Professor of Botany, Royal College of Science, London, 1885-1892. Formerly oe oe President of the Royal Microscopiea! Society and of the Linnean Society. Author Williamson, William Crawford. of Siructural Botany; Studies in Fossil Botany; &c. Davip RanDALL-Maciver, M.A., D.Sc. > Curator of Egyptian Department, University of Pennsylvania. Formerly Worcester « Zimbabwe. Reader in Egyptology, University of Oxford. Author of Medzeval Rhodesia; &c. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES Vii E. Ar.* Rev. ELKANAH ARMITAGE, M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge. Professor in Yorkshire United Independent College, Zwingli. Bradford. ‘ E. ¢.* Ernest Crarke, M.D., F.R.C.S. . Surgeon to the Miller General Hospital. Vice-President of the Ophthalmological &e. Society. Author of Refraction of the Eye; &c. E. Cu. Epaunp Curtis, M.A. { 4 Keble College, Oxford. Lecturer on History in the University of Sheffield. emeems lye) U--of Bielly. Surgeon to the Central London Ophthalmic Hospital, and Consulting O sei Vision: Errors of Refraction, E. C. B. Ricut Rev. Epwarp Cutupert Butter, O.S.B., M.A., D.Lirt. Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of ‘‘ The Lansiac History of Palladius ’~ Wadding, Luke. in Cambridge Texts and Studies. E. C. S. EpMUND CLARENCE STEDMAN. ; { ae See the biographical article: STEDMAN, EpMuUND CLARENCE. Whittier, John Greenleaf. Villanelle; Virelay; Vosmaer, Carel; Waller, Edmund; A Walloons: Literature; Watson, Thomas; Wells, Charles Jeremiah; ; Wennerberg, Gunnar; Winther, Christian; Wordsworth, Dorothy. Ed. M. Epuarp Meyer, Pu.D., D.Litt., LL.D. Voi ¢ IL: Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichte des | Vie te ae me Tes Alterthums; Geschichte des alten Aegyptens; Dte Israeliten und thre Nachbarstémme. , sete E. G. Enmunp Gosse, LL.D. é See the bioggaphical article: GossE, EpMuND.W. E. M. W. Rev. EpwArp Mewsurn WALKER, M.A. . Fellow, Senior Tutor and Librarian of Queen’s College, Oxford. { Xenop hon (én part). E. 0.* Epomunp Owen, F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc. Consulting Surgeon to St Mary’s Hospital, London, and to the Children’s Hospital, | Wart; Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of ) Whitlow. A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students. E, O’N. EvizaBeTH O'NEILL, M.A. (Mrs H. O. O’NErtx). VI Formerly University Fellow and Jones Fellow of the University of Manchester. car. Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester. Com- : mendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal } Vieira, Antonio. Academy of Sciences and Lisbon Geographical Saciety; kc. . E. P. W. EVERETT PEPPERRELL WHEELER, A.M. Formerly Chairman of the Commission on International Law, American Bar Association, and other similar Commissions. Author of Daniel Webster; Modern Law of Carriers; Wages and the Tariff. , E. R. L. Sm Epwin Ray Lanxester, K.C.B., F.R.S., D.Se., LL.D., D.C.L. . i Hon. Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford. President of the British Association, 1906. E.Pr. | Epcar PRESTAGE. {Win Gli; Webster, Daniel (in part). Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy in University College, London, 1874-1890. Linacre Professor of Comparative Anatomy at Oxford, 1891-1898. Director of the Natural History Departments of the British Museum, 1898-1907. Vice-President of the Royal Society, 1896. Romanes Lecturer at Oxford, 1905. Author of Degeneration; The Advancement of Science; The Kingdom of Man; &c: | Zoology. E. T. Extmvu Tuomson, A.M., D.Sc., Pu.D. Inventor of Electric Welding. Electrician to the Thomson-Houston and General Electric Companies. Professor of Chemistry and Mechanics, Central High School, . Philadelphia, 1870-1880. President of the International Electro-technical Com- mission, 1908. Welding: Electric. F. A. C. FRANKLYN ARDEN CRALLAN. Formerly Director of Wood-carving, Gloucester County Council. Author of Gothic Woodcarving. F. 6. ¢. FREDERICK CORNWALLIS ConyBEareE, M.A., D.Tu. Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. Editor of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle. Author of Myth, Magic and Wood-Carving. Vow. Morals; &c. F. G. M. B. FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A. ; Wessex Fellow and Lecturer of Clare College, Cambridge. F F. J. H. Francis Jomun HAvERFIELD, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A. Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Fellow of Brase- nose College. Formerly Censor, Student, Tutor and Librarian of Christ Church. / Watling Street. Ford's Lecturer, 1906-1907. Fellow of the British Acaderhy. Author of Mono- graphs on Roman History, especially Roman Britain; &c. F. Ke. Frank Kerrer, A.M., B.L., M.E.. s Manager of the United States’ Voting Machine Company. Formerly Assistant Voting Machines. Examiner, United States Patent Office. i G. E. G. Fi. G.F. D. G. F. R. H. G. G. P.* G. H.C. G. J. G. J.T. G. Sa. G. W. P. G. W. R. G. W. T. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES Lapy Lucarp. F See the biographical article: LUGARD, Sir F. J. D. Zaria, CoLonEL FREDERIC NatuscH MavpE, C.B. Lecturer in Military imag, Manchester University. Author of War and the> Worth. World's Policy; The Leipzig Campaign; The Jena Campaign. Frank R. Cana. : i anza (7 : Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union. vitora Ry Gn Paes Zambezi; Zululand. Sir Frank THomaAS Marziats, K.C.B. { Zola Emile. Formerly Accountant-General of the Army. Editor of the “Great Writers”’ Series. u 4 { Victoria Falls; FREDERICK WEDMORE. i See the biographical article: WEDMORE, FREDERICK. { Whister. FREDERICK WILLIAM RuDLER, I.S.0., F.G.S. : : Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, rrg-sooa. | Voeane Welltsauza President of the Geologists’ Association, 1887-1889. FrepErick YorK PowELt, D.C.L., LL.D. 2 - See the biographical article: PowELL, FREDERICK YORK. { Vigtisson, Gudbrandr. Lorp GRIMTIORPE. r ’ See the biographical article: GRIMTHORPE, 1ST BARON. “| Watch (in part). Rev. Grorce ALBERT Cooke, M.A., D.D. Oriel Professor of the interpretation of Holy Scripture in the University of Oxford, Zenobla and Fellow of Oriel College. Canon of Rochester. Hon. Canon of St Mary's enonia. Cathedral, Edinburgh. Author of Text-Book of North Semitic Inscriptions; &c. GrorcE Cots Levey, C.M.G. Member of the Board of Advice to the Agent-General for Victoria. Formerly Editor and Proprietor of the Melbourne Hereld. Secretary, Colonial Committee of Royal , - Commission to the Paris Exhibition, 1900. Secretary, Adelaide Exhibition, 1887.) Vietoria (Australia): History. Secretary, Royal Commission, Hobart Exhibition, Boe 1805, Secretary to Com- missioners for Victoria at the Exhibitions in London, Paris, Vienna, Philadelphia and Melbourne. . : William II, King of the Rev. Greorcr Epmunpson, M.A., F.R.Hist.S. erneeee ' ual? Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford’s Lecturer, os William IIL, King of the Hon. Member, Dutch Historical Society; and Foreign Member, Netherlands Netherlands; Association of Literature. : William the Silent; William II., Prince of Orange. GrorcE Fiemine, C.B., LL.D., F.R.C.V.S. Formerly Principal Veterinary Surgeon, War Office, London. Author of Animal Veterinary Science (in part). Plagues: their History, Nature and Prevention. GEORGE FREDERICK Deacon, LL.D., M.Inst.M.E., F.R.M.S. (1843-1909). Formerly Engineer-in-Chief for the Liverpool Water Supply (Vyrnwy Scheme),’ and Member of the Council of the institution of Civil Engineers. Borough and Water + Water Supply. Engineer of Liverpool, 1871-1879. Consulting Civil Engineer, 1879-1909. Author of addresses and papers on Engineering, &c. GEORGE FRANcIS ROBERT HENDERSON. { War See the biographical article: HENDERSON, GEORGE FRANCIS ROBERT. : GEORGE GRENVILLE PHittimore, M.A., B.C.L. ‘ Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-law, Middle Temple. { Wreek 7a GEORGE HERBERT CARPENTER. : ; Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. Author of Insects: Wasp (in part); their Structure and Ltfe. Weevil (in part). GEORGE Jamieson, C.M.G., M.A. Egnetcel’ Consul-General at Shanghai, and Consul and Judge of the Supreme Court, ~ Yangtsze-Kiang. anghai. GEORGE JAMES TURNER. Bata tenage-les Lincoln's Inn. Editor of Select Pleas of the Forests for the Selden { Wapentake. lety. Vigny, Alfred de; Villehardouin, Geoffroy de; Villon, Francois; Voltaire. GeorcE Saintssury, D.C.L., LL.D. ; See the biographical article: SaiInTSBURY, GEORGE E. B. GEORGE WALTER PROTHERO, M.A., Litt.D., LL.D. Editor of the Quarterly Review. Honorary Fellow, formerly Fellow of King’s College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Professor of History in the University of Edinburgh, ee Author of Life and Times of Simon de Mont- fort; &c. Joint-editor of the Cambridge Modern History. William IV., King of England. Major GeorcE Witiram ReEpway. . Author of The War of Secession, 1861-1862; Fredericksburg: a Study in War. { Wilderness (in part). Rev. GRIFFITHES WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D. =, Wanidi; Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old Ya*qubi; Yaqut; Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. Zamakhshari; Zuhair. H. Ch. H. C. H. H. De. H. E. R.* H. H. W. H. Ja. H. J.C. H. Lb. H, M. C. H. M. V. H. R. T. H. St. H. Sw. H. W. C. D. H. W. R.* I. A. I. J.C. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES ix Vietorla, Queen; Huon Cxisnotm, M.A. Waiter, John; 7 Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the 11th edition of Ward, Mrs Humphry; the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Co-editor of the 1oth edition. Wilde, Oscar; Wordsworth, William (in par/). Rev. Horace Carter Hovey, A.M., D.D. Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the Geological Society of America, the National Geographic Society and the Société de Spéléologie. 1 Wyandotte Cave, a of Celebrated American Caverns; Handbook of Mammoth Cave of Kentucky; Gh Hrepotyte Deenaye, S.J. » Bollandist. Joint Editor of the Acta Sanctorum; and the Analecta Bollandiana { vineent, St; Vitus, St. se oo RYLE, ee, wet ‘ ee fy ean of Westminster. Bishop of Winchester, 1903-1911. Bishop of Exeter, 1901- 1903. Formerly Hulsean Protessor of Divinity in the University of eS | weet Brooke Foss. and Fellow of King’s College. Author of On Holy Scripture and Criticism; &c. &c. Hans Friepricn Gapow, M.A., Px.D., F.R.S. Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge.+ Viper. Author of '' Amphibia and Reptiles " in the Cambridge Natural History; &c. Str Henry Harpince CunyNGHAME, K.C.B., M.A. Assistant Under-Secretary, Home Office, London. Vice-President, Institute of ee Engineers. Author of various works on Enamelling, Electric Lighting, ce Watch (in pari). Rev. Henry HerBert WirriaMs, M.A. Fellow, Tutor and Lecturer in Philosophy, Hertford College, Oxford. Examining Chaplain to the Bishop of Llandaff. Henry Jackson, M.A., Litr.D., LL.D., O.M. Regius Professor of Greek in the University of Cambridge, and Fellow of Trinity College. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of Texts to illustrate the History of Greek Philosophy from Thales to Aristotle. Henry James Cnaney, 1.8.0. (1842-1906). Will: Philosophy. Xenocrates; Xenophanes of Colophon; Xeno of Elea. Formerly Superintendent of the Standards Department of the Board of Trade, and Secretary to the Royal Commission on Standards. Represented Great Britain at the International Conference on the Metric System, 1901. Author of Treatise on Weights and Measures. Horace Lama, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. Professor of Mathematics in the University of Manchester. Formerly Fellow and Assistant Tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge. Member of Council of the Royal Society, 1894-1896. Royal Medallist, 1902. President of London Mathematical Society, 1902-1904. Author of Hydrodynamics; &c. Henry Lewis Jones, M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P., M.R.C.S. Medical officer in charge of the Electrical Department and Clinical Lecturer on Medical Electricity at St Bartholomew’s Hospital, London. Author of Medical Electricity; &c. Hector Munro Cnapwick, M.A. Fellow and Librarian of Clare College, Cambridge, and University Lecturer in ) Woden. Scandinavian. Author of Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions. HERBERT Murray Vaucuan, M.A., F.S.A. Keble College, Oxford. Author of The Last of the Royal Stuarts; The Medici Popes; The Last Stuart Queen. Henry Ricuarp Tepper, F.S.A. Secretary and Librarian of the Athenaeum Club, London. Henry Sturt, M.A. Author of Idola Theatri; The Idea of a Free Church; Personal Idealism. Henry Sweet, M.A., Pu.D., LL.D. University Reader in Phonetics, Oxford University. Corresponding Member of the Academies of Munich, Berlin, Copenhagen and Helsingfors. Author cf A History « of English Sounds since the Earliest Period; A Primer of Phonetics, &c. Weights and Measures: Scientific and Commercial. Wave. X-Ray Treatment. Wales: Geography and Statistics and History. Wood, Anthony a. Vischer, Friedrich Theodor. Volapuk. Walter of Coventry; William I., King of England; William II., King of England; William of Maimesbury; William of Newburgh. Henry Witiiam Caress Davis, M.A. Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford, 1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins; Charlemagne. Rev. HENRY WHEELER Rosinson, M.A. Professor of Church History in Rawdon College, Leeds. Senior Kennicott Scholar, Oxford, 1901. Author of “ Hebrew Psychology in Relation to Pauline Anthropo- logy ” in Mansfield College Essays; &c. IsrAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge. Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short History of Jewish Literature; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages; Judaism; &c. Isaac Jostin Cox, Pu.D. Assistant Professor of History in the University of Cincinnati. President of ey win, James. Zechariah (in part). Wise, Isaac Mayer; Zunz, Leopold. | | | | Ohio Valley Historical Association. Author of The Journeys of La Salle and his Companions; &c. x INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES J. A. E. James ALFRED Ewinc, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. Director of (British) Naval Education. Hon. Fellow of King’s College, Cambridge. Watt, Jam Professor of Mechanism and Applied Mechanics in the University of Cambridge, ] | 2 Be 1890-1903. Author of The Strength of Materials; &c. J.A.F. Joun Aiport er me D.Sc., F.R.S. eT 5 ao Pender Professor of Electrical Engineering in the University of London. Fellow of P ‘ University College, London. Formerly Fellow of St John’s College, Cambridge, ‘se 7 bgeee eo University Lecturer on Applied Mechanics. Author of Magnets and Electric eatstone’s bridge. ‘urrents. ; J. A. H. Joun ALLEN Howe..- : . Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. Author of } Wealden; Wenlock Group. The Geology of Building Stones. J. Bt. James BaRTLETT. i Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities, &c., at King’s J wajl-coyerings College, London. Member of the Society of Architects. Member of the Institute of BS. Junior Engineers. J. Bu. OHN BURROUGHS. ; ; J See the biographical article: BURROUGHS, JOHN. { Whitman, Walt. J. E. O. _ Jutrus Ex Orson, B.L. Professor of Scandinavian Languages and Literature at the University of Wisconsin. + Vinland. Author of Norwegian Grammar and Reader. J. F.-K. James FitzMauRicE-KELLy, Litt.D., F.R.Hist.S. : . Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool University. | Villamediana, Count de; Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academy. Villena, Enrique de; Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. Knight Commander of the Order of | Zorrilla y Moral, José. Alphonso XII. Author of A History of Spanish Literature; &c. , 4 J. F. ML. Joun Frercusson M‘LENNAN. { : See the biographical article: M‘LENNAN, JOHN FERGUSSON. Werwolf (in part). J. Ga. James Garrpner, C.B., LL.D. : See the biographical article: GAIRDNER, JAMES. York, House of. J.G. H. JoserH G. Horner, A.M.I.MeEcu.E. ee. : Author of Plating and Boiler Making; Practical Metal Turning; &c. { Welding (in part). J.G. M. Joun Gray McKenpricx, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S. (Edin.). Vision: Emeritus Professor of Physiology in the University of Glasgow. Professor of Voi i Physiology, 1876-1906. Author of Life in Motion; Life of Helmholtz; &c. oice. J.G.R. Joun Grorce Rosertson, M.A., Pu.D. A ; Professor of German Language and Literature, University of London. Editor of the , d, Chri F Modern Lamune Journal. Author of History of German Literature; Schiller after | Wieland, Christoph Martin. @ Century; &c. J. G. Se. Srr James GEorGE Scott, K.C.LE. uperintendent and Political Officer, Southern Shan States. Author of Burne: | Wa The Upper Burma Gazetteer. J.H. F. OHN HENRY FREESE, M.A. { ‘ J Formerly Fellow of St John’s College, Cambridge. Xenophon (in pari). J. H. M. Joun Henry Mippteton, M.A., Lrrt.D., F.S.A., D.C.L. (1846-1806). 3 Slade Professor of Fine Art in the University of Cambridge, 1886-1895. Director | Vitruvius; of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, 1889-1892. Art Director of the South 7 Wren, Sir Christopher; Kensington Museum, 1892-1896. Author of The Engraved Gems of Classical | Zuccaro I.-Hl. Times; Illuminated Manuscripts in Classical and Medieval Times. J. J. L.* Rev. Joun Jott, pee q Chancellor of Llandaif Cathedral. Formerly Hulsean Lecturer in Divinity and Lady sre Margaret Preacher, University of Cambridge. Author of Miracles, Science and Ward, William George. Prayer; &c. J.L. W. ESSIE LAIDLAY WESTON. © y Author of Arthurian Romances unrepresented in Malory. { Wolfram von Eschenbach. . J. Mae. James MacQueen, F.R.C.V.S. Professor of Surgery at the Royal Veterinary College, London. Editor of Fleming’s . ; ; Operative Veterinary Surgery (2nd edition); Dun’s Veterinary Medicines (10th 4 Veterinary Science (cz pari). edition); and Neumann’s Parasites and Parasitic Diseases of the Domesticated Animals (2nd edition). J. Mu.* Joun Murr, A.M., LL.D. ' Member of the American Academy of Arts and Letters. President of the Sierra Club and the American Alpine Club. Visited the Arctic regions on the United States steamer ‘‘ Corwin ”’ in search of the De Long expedition. Author of The Mountains of California; Our National Parks; &c. J. M. G. JoHN MILLER Gray (1850-1894).. Art Critic. Curator of the Scottish National Portrait Gallery, 1884-1894. Author of David Scott, R.S.A.; James and William Tassie. J.M. J. Joun Morris Jones, M.A. Professor of Welsh at the University College of North Wales, Bangor. Formerly peaten Fellow of Jesus College, Oxford. Author of The Elucidarium in Welsh; ( J. M. M. Joun Matcotm MrtcHett. Sometime Scholar of Queen’s College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London . College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grote’s History of Greece. Yosemite. Wilkie, Sir David. Wales: Literaiure and Language. ESSN SF aa SD Winckelmann (in part). J. Si. J.S.N. J.S.R. Jer.* J.T. Be. J.T. C. J. V. B. J. W. J. We. J. W. G. J. W. He. K. G. J. L. J.S. L. R. F. L. V.* INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xi AMES SiMe, M.A. (1843-1895). v { : a Author of A History of Germany; &c. Winekelmann (in part). Joseru Suretp Nicuorson, M.A., Sc.D. Professor of Political Economy at Edinburgh University. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of Principles of Political Economy, Money and Monetary Problems; &c. James SsxutHu Rei, M.A., LL.M., Litt.D., LL.D. Professor of Ancient History in the University of Cambridge and Fellow and Tutor of Gonville and Caius College. Hon. Fellow, formerly Fellow and Lecturer, of Christ's College. Editor of Ciito’s Academica; De Amicitia, &c. Rev. Joun TELFORD. Wesleyan Methodist Connexional Editor. Editor of the Wesleyan Methodist Magazine and the London Quarterly Review. Author of Life of John Wesley; Life of Charles Wesley; &c. Wages; Weaith. Wyttenbach, Daniel Albert. Wesley (Family); Wesiey, John; Wesieyan Methodist Church. Viadimir: Government (in part); Volga (in part); Vologda: Government (in part); Vyatka: Government (in pari); Warsaw: Poland (in part); Yakutsk Gn part); Yeniseisk (in part). Joun Tomas BEALBY. Joint-author of Stanford’s Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asta, Central Asta and Tibet; &c. Josepn Tuomas Cunnincuam, M.A., F.Z.S. Lecturer on Zoology at the South-Western Polytechnic, London. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford, and Assistant Professor of Natural History in the University of Edinburgh. Naturalist to the Marine Biological Association. JAMES VERNON BartTtet, M.A., D.D. ' Scper of Church History, Mansfield College, Oxford. Author of The Apostolic ge; &e. James Witiiams, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D. All Souls Reader in Roman Law in the University of Oxford, and Fellow of Lincoln College. Barrister-at-Law of Lincoln’s Inn. Author of Law of the Universities; &c. Whitebait. Vinet, Alexandre R. Warranty; Water Rights; Will (Law); Women (Early Law); Writ. Jutius WELLHAUSEN, D.D. Zechariah (in pari). See the biographical article: WELLHAUSEN, JULIUS. Joun Watter Grecory, D.Sc., F.R.S. Professor of Geology in the University of Glasgow. Professor of Geology and Mineralogy in the University of Melbourne, 1900-1904. Author of The Dead Heart of Australia; &c. James Wycirrre Heapiam, M.A. Staff Inspector of Secondary Schools under the Board of Education. Formerly Fellow of King’s College, Cambridge, and Professor of Greek and Ancient History at Queen’s College, London. Author of Bismarck and the Foundation of the German Empire; &c. Kart Frieprich GELDNER, PH.D. Professor of Sanskrit and Comparative Philology in the University of Marburg. Author of Vedische Studien; &c. KincsLey GARLAND JAYNE. Sometime Scholar of Wadham College, Oxford. Matthew Arnold Prizeman, 1903. Author of Vasco de Gama and his Successors.. KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. pares of The Portfolio of Musical Archaeology. Author of The Instruments of the rchestra. Count Littzow, Litt.D., D.Pr., F.R.G.S. ' Chamberlain of H.M. the Emperor of Austria, King of Bohemia. Hon. Member of the Royal Society of Literature. Member of the Bohemian Academy, &c. Author of Bohemia: a Historical Sketch; The Hutstortans of Bohemia (l\lchester Lecture, Oxford, 1904); The Life and Times of John Hus; &c. Victoria: Geology; Western Australia: Geology. oe ee rm es a “‘Windthorst, Ludwig. Zend-Avesta; Zoroaster. Xavier, Francisco de. Vieille; Viol; Virginai; Wind Instruments; Xylophone. Ziika, John. Louis DucHESNE. See the biographical article: DuCHESNE, Louis M. O. Leveson Francis VERNON-Harcourt, M.A., M.Inst.C.E. (1839+10907). Professor of Civil Engineering at University College, London, 1882-1905. Author of Rivers ae Canals; Harbours and Docks; Civil Engineering as applied in Con- struction; &c. Victor L-II. (Popes). Weir. Vivianite; Wad; Wavellite; Willemite; Witherite; Woliastonite; Zeolites; Zoisite. LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A. Assistant in the Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar of ioe Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the Minera- logical Magazine. LEwis RIcHARD FARNELL, M.A., Litt.D. Fellow and Senior Tutor of Exeter College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Classical Archaeology; and Wilde Lecturer in Comparative Religion. Author of Cults of Greek States; Evolution of Religion. Lure: Vinvart. . \talian Foreign Office (Emigration Department). Formerly Newspaper Corre- spondent in the East of Europe. Italian Vice-Consul in New Orleans, 1906; Phila- iT 1907; and Boston, 1907-1910. -Author of [talian Life in Town and Country; cc. N ® =] Gd Victor Emmanuel II. eee yO a et to N. W. T. P. A. K. P. C. M. P. Gi. P. G. H. P. G. K. P. S. R. C. D. R. G. R. G. M. R. He. R. J. M. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES Lucien Wo tr. é Vice-President, formerly President, of the Jewish Historical Society of England. Zionism. Joint-editor of the Bibliotheca A nglo-judaica. Lapy Broome (Mary ANNE Broome). —: Author of Station Life in New Zealand; Stories About; Colonial Memories; &c. Western Australia: History. Matcotm BELL. F , Author of Pewter Plate; Sir E. Burne-Jones: a Record and Review. { watts, George Frederick. MARGARET BRYANT. { Virgil: The Virgil Legend. Rt. Rev. MandELL CREIGHTON, D.C.L., LL.D. ‘ See the biographical article: CREIGHTON, MANDELL. Waldenses. Moritz Cantor, Pu.D. Honorary Professor of Mathematics in the University of Heidelberg. Hofrat of the German Empire. Author of Vorlesungen tiber die Geschichie der Mathematik; &c. Marion H. SpreLMann, F.S.A. Formerly Editor of the Magazine of Art. Member of Fine Art Committee of Inter- national Exhibitions of Brussels, Paris, Buenos Aires, Rome, and the Franco-British Exhibition, London. Author of History of “ Punch”; British Portrait Painting to the opening of the roth Century; Works of G. F. Watts, R.A.; British Sculpture and Sculptors of To-Day; Henriette Ronner; &c. NorTHCOTE WHITRIDGE THOMAS, M.A. Government Anthropologist to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding Member of the Société d’Anthropologie de Paris. Author of Thought Transference; Kinship and Marriage in Australia; &c. Vieta, Francois. Wauters, Emile; Wood-engraving (in part). Week; Werwolf (in part); Witchcraft. . Viadimir: Government (in part); Volga (in part); Vologda: Government (in part); Vyatka: Government (in part); Warsaw: Poland (in part); Yakutsk (in part); Yenlseisk (in pert). PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVITCH KROPOTKIN. See the biographical article: KRoPoTKIN, PRINCE P. A. Peter Caatmers Mitcue t, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., F.Z.S., F.R.S. Secretary of the Zoological Society of London. University Demonstrator in Com- parative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1888-1891. Author of Outlines of Biology; &c. Peter Gives, M.A., LUL.D., Litt.D. Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of the Cambridge Philo- logical Society. Author of Manual of Comparative Philology. Zoological Gardens; Zoological Nomenclature. W. X. Y. Z. Pitre GILBERT HAMERTON. : : See the biographical article: HAMERTON, PHILIP GILBERT. Wood-engraving (in pari). Paut GEorRGE Konopy. Art Critic of The Observer and The Daily Mail. Formerly Editor of The Artist. ine. Author of The Art of Walter Crane; Velasquez, Life and Work; &c. ee ee Puitie Scuiprowitz, Pu.D., F.C.S. Member of the Council, Institute of Brewing; Member of the Committee of the | Whisky; Society of Chemical Industry. Author of numerous articles on the Chemistry and) Wine. Technology of Brewing, Distilling; &c. PavuLt Vinocraporr, D.C.L., LL.D. Village Communities; See the biographical article: VINOGRADOFF, PAUL. Villenage. CoLonEL RoBERT ALEXANDER Wanas, C.B., C.M.G., C.LE. Formerly H.M. Commissioner, Aden Boundary Delimitation. Served_with Tirah Yemen Paee a Ion aby Force, 1897-1898, and on the Anglo-Russian Boundary Commission, p amirs, 1895. Rowesu CuHunDER Dutt, C.1E. (1848-1909). Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature; Member of the Royal Asiatic Society. Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. Formerly Revenne Minister of Baroda State, ~ Vidyasagar, Iswar Chandra. and Prime Minister of Baroda State. Author of Economic History of India in the Victorian Age, 1837-1900; .&c. Ricwarp Garnett, LL.D. P See the biographical article: GARNETT, RICHARD. { Wakefteld, Edward Gibbon. REGINALD GODFREY MARSDEN. ‘ Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. { Wreck (in part). Sir REGINALD HENNELL, D.S.O., C.V.O. Colonel in fhe ings a Gecredy Leutore of ihe pease peovacuard of ie Yeomen of the Guard. rved in the Abyssinian Expedition, 1867-68; ghan vard. War, 1879-80; Burmah Campaign, 1886-87. Author of History of the Yeomen of iS aa the Guard, 1485-1904; &c. Ronatp Jonn McNEILL, M.A. Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln’s Inn. Formerly Editor of the, Wentworth (Family). St James's Gazette (London). R. K. D. R. L.* R. L. P. R. Mu. R. N. B. R. P. S. R. S. ¢. R. W. F. H. S. A. C. S.N. S. P. T. As. T. A. A. T. A. C. T. Ba. T. H. B. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xiii Str Robert KENNAWAY DovucLas. Formerly Professor of Chinese, King’s College, London. Keeper of Oriental Printed Books and MSS. at the British Museum, 1892-1907. Member of the Chinese) Wade, Sir Thomas F. Consular Service, 1858-1865. Author of The Language and Literature of China; Europe and the Far East; &c. Viscacha; Vole; Walrus (in pari); Water-Deer; Weasel; Whaie (ix part); Whale-fishery; Wolf (in part); Wombat; Zebra (in part); Zoological Distribution. Ricwarp Lypexxer, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. Member of the Staff of the pint tape Survey of India, ig cee. Author of yg fo of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in the British Museum; The Deer of all Lands; The Game Animals of Africa; &c. Recinatp Lane Poots, M.A., Px#.D., LL.D. Keeper of the Archives of the University of Oxford and Fellow of Magdalen College. Fellow of the British sain Editor of the English Historical Review. Author of Wycliffe and movements for Reform; &c. Rosert Munro, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. (Edin.). Dalrymple Lecturer on Archaeology in the University of Glasgow, 1910. Rhind Lecturer on Archaeology, 1888. Secretary of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, aed Founder of the Munro Lectureship on Anthropology and Prehistoric Archaeology in the University of Edinburgh. Author of The Lake-dwellings of Europe; Prehistoric Scotland, and its place in European Civilization; &c. Wycliffe (in part). Vitrified Forts. Visdimir, St; Voluinsky, Artemy Petrovich; Vorontsov (Family); Vorosmarty, Mihaly; Wallqvist, Olaf; Wesselényi, Baron; Wielopolski, Aleksander; Witowt; Wladisiaus I.-IV. of Poland. Zamoyski, Jan; Zolkiewski, Stanislaus; Zrinyi, Count (1508-1566); Zrinyl, Count (1620-1664). Rosert NISBET Bain (d. 1909). Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia: the Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; The First Romanovs, 1613-1725; Slavonic Europe: the Political History of Polend and Russia from 1469 to 1796; &c. R. Puenfé Spiers, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. Formerly Master of the Architectural Schoof, Royal Academy, London. Past President of the Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King’s College, London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's History of Architecture. Author of Architecture: East and West; &c. Rosert SEyMour Conway, M.A., D.Litt. Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University of Manchester. Formerly Professor of Latin in University College, Cardiff; and Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Author of The Italic Dialects. RoBERT WILLIAM FREDERICK HARRISON. { Violin Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Assistant Secretary of the Royal Society, London. e STANLEY ARTHUR. Cook. - Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, | Zebulun; Cambridge. Editor for the Palestine Exploration Fund. Author of Glossary of ) Zedekiah; Aramaic Inscriptions; The Laws of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi; Critical | Zephaniah. Notes on Old Testament History; Religion of Anctent Palestine; &c. Srmron Newcoms, D.Sc., LL.D. See the biographicai article: NEwcomB, SIMON. { Zodiacal — STEPHEN PacET, F.R.CS. Surgeon to the Throat and Ear Department, Middlesex Hospital. Hon. Secretary, Research Defence Society. Author of Memoirs and Letters of Sir James Paget; &c. Tomas Asusy, M.A., D.Litt. Director of the British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Conington Prizeman, 1906. Member of the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of The Classical Topography of the Roman Campagna. THomas ANDREW ARCHER, M.A. Author of The Crusade of Richard I.; &c. Timothy AUGUSTINE CocHtay, I.S.O. {saa Geography and Villa; Window. Volsci. Vivisection. Vetuionium; Vicenza; Viterbo; Volci; Volsinil; Voiterra; Voiturno. { vincent of Beauvais. Agent-General for New South Wales. Government Statistician, New South Wales, Statistics; 1886-1905. Honorary Fellow of the Royal Statistical Society. Author of Weatth Western Australia: Geography he Progress of New South Wales; Statistical Account of Australia and New Zealand; ond Statistics ‘ iS . Str THomas BaRctay. Member of the Institute of International Law. Officer of the Legion of Honour. futher of Problems of International Practice and Diplomacy; &c. M.P. for Black- urn, 1910. War: Lows of; Waters, Territorial. _THomas Hupson Beare, M.Inst.C.E., M.Inst.M.E. Regius Professor of Engineering in the University of Edinburgh. Author of papers+ Water Motors. in the Transactions of the Societies of Civil and Mechanical Engineers, 1894-1902. XIV T. R. G. T. W.-D. T. W. F. W. A. B. C. W.F.C. W. Hy. W. M. W. MacD.* W. M. F. P. W. M. R. Ww. 0. S$. W. P. C. W. P. J. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES TERROT REAVELEY GLover, M.A. i ags a * Fellow and Classical Lecturer at.St John’s College, Cambridge. Professor of Latin, i Virgil (in part). ; Queen's University, Kingston, Canada, 1896-1901. Author of Studies in Virgil; &c. WALTER THEODORE WatTTs-DuNTON. f — _ See the biographical article: WatTs-DUNTON, WALTER THEODORE. { Wycherley, William. : Tuomas. WiLL1AM Fox. . Professor of Textiles in the University of Manchester. Author of Mechanics of Weaving. ; Weaving; Yarn. Count Uco Batzant, Litt.D. Member of the Reale Accademia dei Lincei. Sometime President of the Reale Societa Romana di Storia Patria. Corresponding Member of the British Academy; Author of The Popes and the Hohenstaufen; &c. Witrrip Arry, M.Inst.C.E. . Sometime Scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge. Technical Adviser to the Standards Department of the Board of Trade. Author of Levelling and Geodesy; &e. Villani, Giovanni. Weighing Machines. Vevey; Vienne: Town; Vorarlberg; Walensee; Winkelried, Arnold von; Winterthur; Zug: Canton; Zug: Town; Zug, Lake of; Zurich: Canton; Zirich: Town; Ziirich, Lake of. Wolf, Hugo. Rev. Wittram Aucustus BEEvoort Coo.iper, M.A., F.R.G.S., Pu.D. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide du Haut Dauphiné; The Range of the Todi; Guide to Grindelwald; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and in History; &c. Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-1881; &c. i WALTER ARMITAGE JUSTICE Forp. Sometime Scholar of King’s College, Cambridge. Teacher of Singing at the Royal College of Music, London. : Watter Arson Puitiips, M.A. . Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John’s College, Oxford. Author of Modern Europe; &c. . Witu1am Bourton, M.A., F.C.S. Chairman of the Joint Committee of Pottery Manufacturers of Great Britain. _ Author of English Stoneware and Earthenware; &c. Witriam CAWTHORNE Unwin, F.R.S., LL.D., M.Inst.C.E., M.Inst.M.E. Emeritus Professor, Central Technical College, City and Guilds of London Institute. Author of Wrought Iron Bridges and Roofs; Treatise on Hydraulics; &c. ~ Siz WiituiaM Epmunp Garstin, G.C.M.G. ° 5 British Government Director, Suez Canal Co. Formerly Inspector-General of Irrigation, Egypt. Adviser to the Ministry of Public Works in Egypt, 1904-1908. WitiraM FEILpEN Craies, M.A. Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law, King’s College, London. Editor of Archbold’s Criminal Pleading (23rd edition). Witiram HENRY. : ae : : Founder and Chief Secretary of the Royal Life Saving Society. Associate of the Orsi of St John of Jerusalem. Joint Author of Swimming (Badminton Library); (oe Walther von der Vogelweide; Wycliffe (in part). Wedgwood, Josiah. Windmill. Vietorla Nyanza (in part). Wager; Warrant; Witness. Water Polo. Walrus (in part); z Whale (in part); Wolf (in part); Zebra (in part). Sir WILtiaM HENRY FLOWER, F.R.S. g See the biographical article: FLower, Sir W. H. Witiiam Lawson Grant, M.A. Professor of Colonial History, Queen’s University, Kingston, Canada. Formerly Beit Lecturer on Colonial History, Oxford University. Editor of Acts of the Privy Council (Canadian Series). Wiruam Minto, M.A.- = i rr : , See the biographical article: Minto, WILLIAM. . { Wordsworth, William (in part) Wititram MacDownatp, LL.D., Px.D. — Professor of American History in Brown University, Providence, R.]. Formerly Professor of History and Political Science, Bowdoin. Member of the American Washington, George. * Historical Association, &c. Author of History and Government of Maine; &c. Editor of Select Charters and other documents illustrative of American History. Wilson, Sir Daniel. my yt te Ss OO eee on WituiaM Matrnew Firnpers Perrir, F.R.S., D.C.L., Litt.D. Weights and Measures: See the biographical article: PETRIE, W. M. FLINDERS. Ancient Historical. WiitramM MicHaEL ROsseTTI. sa Vivarini; See the biographical article: RosseTT1, DANTE GABRIEL. Zurbaran, Francisco. Witiiam Oscar Scroces, Pa.D. < Assistant Professor of History and Economics at Louisiana State University.~ Walker, William. Formerly Goodwin and Austin Fellow, Harvard University. WILLIAM. PRIDEAUX COURTNEY. 3 ant att Walpole, Horatlo; See the biographical article: Courtney, L. H. BARON. Wilkes, John. WitiiaM Price JAMES. ge ' = : Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. High Bailiff, Cardiff County Court. Author of , Watson, William (poet). Romantic Professions; &c. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES XV W. P. R. Hon. WittiaM PEMBER REEVES. Seti iomgid Oe einer itatio® Labec: avi Toots, ’ a . ’ ice, ee ere Ariba em nang Wie Cloud: 2 History op-Neb | ee Fates. Zealand; &c. W. Ri. Wituam Rinceway, M.A., D.Sc., Litr.D. | Disney Professor of Archaeology, and Brereton Reader in Classics, in the Universit of Cambridge. Fellow of Gonville and Caius College. Fellow of the Britis Villanova. Academy. President of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 1908. Author of The Early Age of Greece; &c. .S. R. Witiram Smyti RocxstRo. Oo jay ‘ : ‘ Author of A Great History of Music from the Infancy of the Greek Drama to the Present | iy a> Rien one) (aes pari); Period; &c. * W. T. Ca. Wittiam Tuomas CaLMAN, D.Sc., F.Z.S. Water-flea; Assistant in charge of Crustacea, Natural History Museum, South Kensington. | Woot lone Author of ‘‘ Crustacea,” in a Treatise on Zoology, edited by Sir E. Ray Lankester. ‘ . Wr. LLISTON WALKER, Pu.D., D.D. . es be ll of Church History, Yale University. Author of History of the Congrega- | Winthrop, John (1583-1649). tional Churches in the United States; The Reformation; John Calvin, &c. ‘ W. W.F. WILiiamM WarpveE Fow ter, M.A. | Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. Sub-rector, 1881-1904. Gifford Lecturer, J yyjean. Edinburgh University, 1908. Author of The City-State of the Greeks and Romans; |- The Roman Festivals of the Republican Period; &e. W. W. R.* Witiiam WALKER ROCKWELL, PH.D. { 4 Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York. Ree, ae eo W.Y.S. Wituiam Younc Settar, LL.D. i : See the biographical article: SELLAR, WILLIAM YOUNG. { Virgit (in part). PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES Vicksburg. Watertown. Wigan. Wyoming. Vienna. Wax Figures. Wight, Isie of. Wyoming Valley. Vine. Weimar. Wigtownshire. Yaie University. Vinegar. Weil. Wiikes-Barré. Yarmouth. Vingt-et-Un. Wells. Wiliiamsburg (Va.). Yaws. Vioiet. West Indies. Willow. Yellow Fever. Virginia. Westmeath. Wiimington (Del.). Yeliowstone National Viscount. Westminster. Wilton. Park. Viachs. Westmorland. Wiitshire. Yew. Volunteers. Westphalia. Winchester. Yezo. Vote and Voting. West Point (N.Y.). Windsor. York. Wadai. West Virginia. Winnipeg. Yorkshire. Wagram. Wexford. Wire. Yorktown. Wakefield. Weymouth. Wisconsin. Ypsilanti. Waideck-Pyrmont. Wheat. Wisconsin, University Yucatan. Wallingford. Wheeling. of. Yukon. Wainut. Whig and Tory. Woolwich. Zante. War Game. Whist, Worcester. Zanzibar. Warrington. Whitby. Worcestershire. Zeeland. Warwick. White Plains. Worms. Zeuxis. Warwickshire. Whooping-Cough. Wrestiing. Zinc. Washington. Wicklow. Writing. Zirconium. Water. Wiesbaden. Wirttemberg. Zulder Zee. Waterford. Wig. Wtrzburg. ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XXVIII VETCH, in botany, the English name for Vicia sativa, also known as tare, a leguminous annual herb with trailing or climb- ing stems, compound leaves with five or six pairs of leaflets, reddish-purple flowers borne singly or in pairs in the leaf-axis, and a silky pod containing four to ten smooth seeds. The wild form, sometimes regarded as a distinct species, V. angusti- folia, is common in dry soils. There are two races of the cultivated vetch, winter and spring vetches: the former, a hardy form, capable of enduring frost, has smoother, more cylindrical pods with smaller seeds than the summer variety, and gives less bulk of stem and leaves. The spring vetch is a more delicate plant and grows more rapidly and luxuriantly than the winter variety. The name vetch is applied to other species of the genus Vicia. Vicia orobus, bitter vetch, and V. sylvatica, wood vetch, are British plants. Another British plant, Hzppocrepis, is known as horseshoe vetch from the fact of its pod breaking into several horseshoe-shaped joints. Amthyllis vulneraria is kidney-vetch, a herb with heads of usually yellow flowers, found on dry banks. Astregalus is another genus of Legumi- nosae, and is known as milk-vetch. Vetehes are a very valuable forage crop. Being indigenous to Britain, and not fastidious in regard to soil, they can be cultivated successfully under a great diversity of circumstances, and are well adapted for poor soils. By combining the winter and spring varieties, and making several sowings of each in its season at intervals of two or three weeks, it is practicable to have them fit for use from May till October, and thus to carry out a system of soiling by means of vetches alone. But it is usually more expedient to use them in combination with grass and clover, beginning with the first cutting of the latter in May, taking the winter vetches in June, recurring to the Italian ryegrass or clover as the second cutting is ready, and afterwards bringing the spring vetches into use. Each crop can thus be used when in its best state for cattle food, and so as gratefully to vary their dietary. Winter Vetches——There is no botanical difference between winter and spring vetches, and the seeds being identical in appearance, caution is required in purchasing seed to get it of XXVUI. I the right sort. Seed grown in England is found the most suitable for sowing in Scotland, as it vegetates more quickly, and produces a more vigorous plant than that which is home- grown. As the great inducement to cultivate this crop is the obtaining of a supply of nutritious green food which shall be ready for use about the rst of May, so as to fill up the gap which is apt to occur betwixt the root crops of the previous autumn and the ordinary summer food, whether for grazing or soiling, it is of the utmost importance to treat it in such a way that it may be ready for use by the time mentioned. To secure this, winter tares should be sown in August if possible, but always as soon as the land can be cleared of the preceding crop. They may yield a good crop though sown in October, but in this case will probably be very little in advance of early-sown spring vetches, and possess little, if any, advantage over them in any respect. The land on which they are sown should be dry and well sheltered, clean and in good heart, and be further enriched by farmyard manure. Not less than 33 bushels of seed per acre should be sown, to which some think it beneficial to add half a bushel of wheat. Rye is frequently used for this purpose, but it gets reedy in the stems, and is rejected by the stock. Winter beans are better than either. The land having been ploughed rather deeply, and well harrowed, it is found advantageous to deposit the seed in rows, either by a drilling-machine or by ribbing. The latter is the best practice, and the ribs sbould be at least a foot apart and rather deep, that the roots may be weil developed before top-growth takes place. As soon in spring as the state of the land and weather admits of it, the crop should be hoed betwixt the drills, a top-dressing at the rate of 40 bushels of soot or 2 cwt. of guano per acre applied by sowing broadcast, and the roller then used for the double purpose of smoothing the surface so as to admit of the free use of the scythe and of pressing down the plants which may have been loosened by frost. It is thus by early sowing, thick seeding and liberal manuring that this crop is to be forced to an early and abundant thaturity. May and June are the months in which winter vetches are used to advantage. A second growth will be produced from the roots if the crop is allowed to stand; but it is much better practice to plough up the land as the crop is 5 e VETERAN—VETERINARY SCIENCE cleared, and to sow turnips uponit. After a full crop of vetches, land is usually in a good state for a succeeding crop. When the whole process has been well managed, the gross amount of cattle food yielded by a crop of winter vetches, and the turnip crop by which it is followed in the same summer, will be found considerably to exceed what could be obtained from the fullest crop of turnips alone, grown on similar soil, and with the same quantity of manure. It is useless to sow this crop where game abounds. Spring vetches, if sown about the 1st of March, will be ready for use by the 1st of July, when the winter vetches are just cleared off. To obtain the full benefit of this crop, the land on which it is sown must be clean, and to keep it so a much fuller allowance of seed is required than is usually given in Scotland. When the crop is as thick set as it should be, the tendrils intertwine, and the ground is covered by a solid mass of herbage, under which no weed can live. To secure this, not less than 4 bushels of seed per acre should be used if sown broadcast, or 3 bushels if in drills. The latter plan, if followed by hoeing, is certainly the best; for if the weeds are kept in check until the crop is fairly estahlished, they have no chance of getting up afterwards. With a thin crop of vetches, on the other hand, the land is so certain to get foul, that they should at once be ploughed down, and something else put in their place. As vetches are in the best state for use when the seeds begin to form in the pods, repeated sowings are made at intervals of three weeks, beginning by the end of February, or as early in March as the season admits, ard continuing till May. The usual practice in Scotland has been to sow vetches on part of the oat break, once ploughed from lea. Sometimes this does very well, but a far better plan is to omit sowing clover and grass seeds on part of the land occupied by wheat or barley after a crop of turnips, and having ploughed that portion in the autumn to occupy it with vetches, putting them izstead of “ seeds” for one revolution of the course. When vetches are grown on poor soils, the most profitable way of using them is by folding sheep upon them, a practice very suitable also for clays, upon which a root crop cannot safely be consumed in this way. A different course must, however, be adopted from that followed when turnips are so disposed of. When sheep are turned in upon a piece of tares, a large portion of the food is trodden down and wasted. Cutting the vetches and putting them into racks does not much mend the matter, as much is still pulled out and wasted, and the manure unequally distributed over the land. To avoid those evils, hurdles with vertical spars, betwixt which the sheep can reach with head and neck, are now used. These are set close up to the growing crop along a considerable stretch, and shifted forward as the sheep eat up what is within their reach. This requires the constant attention of the shepherd, but the labour is repaid by the saving of the food, which heing always fresh and clean, does the sheep more good. A modification of this plan is to use the same kind of hurdles, but instead of shifting them as, just described, to mow a swathe parallel to them, and fork this forward within reach of the sheep as required, repeating this as often during the day as is found necessary, and at night moving the sheep close up to the growing crop, so that they may lie for the next twenty-four hours on the space which has yielded food for the past day. During the night they have such pickings as have been left on the recently mown space and so much of the growing crop as they can get at through the spars. There is less labour by this last mode than the other, and having practised it for many years, we know that it answers well. This folding upon vetches is suitable either for finishing off for market sheep that are in forward condition, or for recently weaned lambs, which, after five or six weeks’ folding on this clean, nutritious herbage, are found to take on more readily to eat -turnips, and to thrive better upon them, than if they had been kept upon the pastures all the autumn. Sheep folded upon vetches must have water always at command, otherwise they will not prosper. As spring-sown vetches are in perfection at the season when pastures usually get dry and scanty, a common practice is to cart them on to grass land and spread them out in wisps, to be eaten by the sheep or cattle. It is, however, much better either to have them eaten by sheep where they grow, or to cart them to the homestead. y VETERAN, old, tried, experienced, particularly used of a soldier who has seen much service. The Latin veferanus (vetus, old), as applied to a soldier, had, beside its general application in opposition to éiro, recruit, a specific technical meaning in the Roman army. Under the republic the full term of service with the legion was twenty years; those who served this period and gained their discharge (missio) were termed emeriti. If they chose to remain in service with the legion, they were then called velerant. Sometimes a special invitation was issued to the emeriti to rejoin; they were then styled evocatz. The base of Lat. vetus meant a year, as secn in the Gr. éres (for Feros) and Sanskrit vefsa; from the same base comes vitulus, a calf, properly a yearling, vitellus, a young calf, whence O. Fr. veel, modern, vedu, English ‘‘ veal,” the flesh of the calf. The Teutonic cognate of vitulus is probably seen in Goth. withrus, lamb, English ‘“‘ wether,” a castrated ram. VETERINARY SCIENCE (Lat. veterinarius, an adjective meaning “connected with beasts of burden and draught,’ from veterinus, “ pertaining to yearlings,” and vitulus, “a calf”), the science, generally, that deals with the conformation and structure of the domesticated animals, especially the horse; their physiology and special racial characteristics; their breed- ing, feeding and general hygienic management; their pathology, and the preventive and curative, medical and surgical, treat- ment of the diseases and injuries to which they are exposed; their amelioration and improvement; their relations to the human family with regard to communicable maladies; and the supply of food and other products derived from them for © the use of mankind. In this article it is only necessary to deal mainly with veterinary science in its relation with medicine, as other aspects are treated under the headings for the par- ticular animals, &c. In the present edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica the various anatomical articles (see Anatomy for a list of these) are based on the comparative method, and the anatomy of the lower animals is dealt with there and in the separate articles on the animals. History. There is evidence that the Egyptians practised veterinary medicine and surgery in very remote times; but it is not until we turn to the Greeks that we obtain any very definite informa- tion with regard to the state of veterinary as well as human medicine in antiquity. The writings of Hippocrates (460-377 B.C.) afford evidence of excellent investigations in comparative pathology. Diocles of Carystus, who was nearly a contem- porary, was one of the first to occupy himself with anatomy, which he studied in animals. Aristotle, too, wrote on physiology and comparative anatomy, and on the maladies of animals, while many other Greek writers on veterinary medicine are cited or copied from by Varro, Columella and Galen. And we must not overlook Mago of Carthage (200 8.c.), whose work in twenty-eight books was translated into Greek and was largely used by Varro and Columella. ? Regarding the origin of the word “ veterinary,” the followin: occurs in D’Arboval’s Dictionnaire de médecine et de chirurgie vétérinaires, edited by Zundel (1877), iii. 814: ‘‘Les mots veterinaria ct veterinarius étaient employés par les Romains pour désigner: le premier, la médecine des bétes de somme; le second, pour indiquer celui qui la pratiquait; le mot veterinae indiquait les bétes de somme, et était la contraction de veheierinae, du verbe vehere, porter, tirer, trainer. L’étymologie réelle du mot vétérinaire, ou plutét du mot veterinarius des Romains, serait d’aprés Lenglet encore pls ancienne; elle viendrait du celtique, d’od le mot serait passé chez les Romains; cet auteur fait venir le mot de vee, bétail (d’ou l’allemand Veh), teeren, tre malade (d’ou l’allemand Zehren, ale aerts ou arts, artiste, médecin (d’od l’allemand ret). VETERINARY SCIENCE 3 Until after the conquest of Greece the Romans do not appear to have known much of veterinary medicine. Varro (116-28 B.C.) may be considered the first Ronian writer who deals with Amongst 4 nimal medicine in a scientific spirit in his De Re Rustica, ~ = in three books, which is largely derived from Greek writers. * Celsus is supposed to have written on animal medicine, and Columella (1st century) is credited with having utilized those relating to veterinary science in the sixth and seventh parts of his De Re Rustica, one of the best works of its class of ancient times; it treats not only of medicine and surgery, but also of_ sanitary measures for the suppression of contagious diseases. From the 3rd century onwards veterinary science had a literature of its own and regular practitioners, especially in the service of the Roman armies (mulomedici, veterinarii). Perhaps the most renowned veterinarianof the Roman empire was Apsyrtus of Bithynia, who in 322 accompanied the expedition of Constantine against the Sar- matians in his professional capacity, and seems to have enjoyed a high and well-deserved reputation in his time. He was a keen observer; he distinguished and described a number of diseases which were badly defined by his predecessors, recognized the contagious nature of glanders, farcy and anthrax, and prescribed isolation for their suppression; he also made interesting observations on accidents and diseases of horses’ limbs, and wa war against certain absurd empirical practices then prevailing in the treatment of disease, indicating rational methods, some of which are still successfully employed in veterinary therapeutics, such as splints for fractures, sutures for wounds, cold water for the reduction of rolapsed vagina, hot baths for tetanus, &c. Not less eminent was jerocles, the successor of Apsyrtus, whose writings he largely copied, but with improvements and valuable additions, especially in the hygiene and training of horses. Pelagonius, again, was a writer of empirical tendency, and his treatment of disease in general was most irrational. Publius Vegetius (not to be confounded with Flavius Vegetius Renatus, who wrote on the military art) was a popular author of the end of the 5th century, though less distin- guished than Apsyrtus, to whom and to Pelagonius he was to a great extent indebted in the preparation of his Mulomedicina sive Ars Veterinaria. He appears to have been more of a horse-dealer than a veterinary practitioner,.and knew next to nothing of anatomy, which seems to have been but little cultivated at that period. He was very superstitious and a believer in the influence of demons and sorcerers; nevertheless, he gives some interesting observations de- rived from his travels. He had also a good idea of aérial infection, recognized the utility of disinfectants, and describes some operations not referred to by previous writers, such as removal of calculi from the bladder through the rectum, couching for cataract, the extirpa- tion of certain glands, and several serious operations on the horse’s foot. Though inferior to several works written by his predecessors, the AMfulomedicina of Vegetius maintained its popularity through many centuries. Of most of the ancient veterinary writers we know little beyond what can be gathered from the citations and extracts in the two great collections of Hippiatrica and Geoponica compiled by order of Constantine Porphyrogenitus in the 1oth century. It is unnecessary to dwell here on the progress of the veterinary art during the middle ages. Towards the close of the medieval a! the subject was much cultivated in the cavalry schools of taly; and Spain also had an organized system of gocd practitioners in fire 15th century, who have left many bcoks still extant. Ger- many was far behind, and literature on the subject did not exist until the end of the 15th century, when in 1492 there was published anonymously at Augsburg a Pferdearzneibiichlein. In the following century the influence of the Italian writers was becoming manifest, and the works of Fugger and Fayser mark the commencement of a new era. Fayser's treatises, Von der Gestiilerei and Von der Zucht der Kriegs- und Btirger-Pferde-(1529-97), are remarkable for originality and good sense. In Great Britain animal medicine was perhaps in a more advanced condition than in Germany, if we accept the evidence of the Ancient Laws and Institutes of Wales (London, 1841); yet it was largely made up of the grossest super- stitions.! Among the Celts the healer of horse diseases and the shoer were held in high esteem, as among the more civilized nations of Europe, and the court farrier enjoyed special privileges? The earliest known works in English appeared anonymously towards the commencement of the 16th century, viz. Propertees and Medcynes for a Horse and Mascal of Oxen, Horses, Sheepes, Hogges, Dogges. The word “ mascal ” shows that the latter work was in its origin Italian. There is no doubt that in the 15th century the increasing taste for horses and horsemanship brought Italian nding- masters and farriers into England; and it is recorded that Henry VIII. brought over two of these men who had been trained by Grisone in the famous Neapolitan school. The knowledge so intro- duced became popularized, and assumed a concrete form in Blunde- ville’s Foure Chiefest Offices belonging to Horsemanship (1566), which contains many references to horse diseases, and, though mainly a compilation, is yet enriched with original observations. In the 1See Leechdoms. Wortcunning and Starcraft of Early England (3 vols. 8vo, London, 1864). *See Fleming, Horse-shoes ond Horse-Shoeing (London, 1869). 15th century the anatomy of the domesticated animals, formerly almost entirely neglected, began to receive attention. A work on comparative anatomy by Volcher Koyter was issued at Nuremberg in 1573; about the same time a writer in Germany named Copho or Cophon published a book on the anatomy of the pig, in which were many original remarks on the lymphatic vessels; and Jehan Hervard in France produced in 1594 his rather incomplete Hrppo- Ostéologie. But by far the most notable work, and one which main- tained its popularity for a century and a half, was that of Carlo Ruini, a senator of Bologna, published in 1598 in that city, and entitled Dell’ Anatomia e dell’ Infirmitad del Cavallo, ¢ suoi Remedti. Passing through many editions, and translated into French and German, this book was for the most part original, and a remarkable one for the time in which it was composed, the anatomical portion being especially praiseworthy. English books of the Le century exhibit a strong tendency towards the improvement of veterinary medicine and surgery, especially as regards the horse. This is even more notable in the writings of the 18th century, amoung which may be particularized Gibson’s Faerrter’s New Guide (171 4 Method of Dieting Horses (1721) and (best of all) his New Treatise on the Diseases of Horses, besides Braken’s, Burdon’s, Bridge’s and Bartlet’s treatises. Veterinary anatomy was greatly advanced by the Anatom of an Horse (1683) of Snape, farrier to Chases If., ittustraved wit adie ie and by the still more complete and original work of Stubbs, the Anatomy of the Horse (1766), which decidedly marked a new era in this line of study. Of foreign works it may suffice to mention that of Solleysel, Véritable parfait maréschal (1664), which passed through many editions, was translated into several languages, and was borrowed from for more than a century by different writers. Sir W. Hope’s Compleat Horseman (1696) is a translation from Solleysel by a pupil. Modern Schools and Colleges —The most important era in the history of modern veterinary science commenced with the institution of veterinary schools. France was the first to take the great initiative step in this direction. Buffon had recom- eae mended the formation of veterinary schools, but his sieol recommendations were not attended to. Claude Bourgelat paeape (1712-1799), an advocate at Lyons and a talented higpolo- ist, through his influence with Bertin, prime minister under Louis V., was the first to induce the government to establish a veterinary school and school of equitation at Lyons, in 1761. This school he himself directed for only a few years, during which the great benefits that had resulted from it justified an extension of its teaching to other parts of France. Bourgelat, therefore, founded (1766) at Alfort, near Paris, a second veterinary school, which soon became, and has remained to this day, one of the finest and most advanced veterinary schools in the world. At Lyons he was replaced by the Abbé Rozier, a learned agriculturist, who was killed at the siege of Lyons after a very successful period of school management, during which he had added largely to agricultural and physical knowledge by the publication of his Journal de Physique and Cours d'Agriculture. Twenty years later the Alfort school added to its teaching staff several distinguished professors whose names still adorn the annals of science, such as Dauberton, who taught rural economy; Vic d’Azyr, who lectured on comparative anatomy; Fourcroy, who undertook instruction in chemistry; and Gilbert, one of its most brilliant pupils, who had veterinary medicine and surgery for his department. e last-named was also a distinguished agniculturist and published many important treatises on agricultural as well as veterinary subjects. ‘The position he had acquired, added to his profound and varied knowledge, made him most useful to France during the period of the Revolution. It is chiefly to him that it is indebted for the celebrated Rambouillet flock of Merino sheep, for the conservation of the Tuileries and Versailles parks, and for the creation of the fine experimental agricultural estab- lishment organized in the ancient domain of Sceaux. The Alfort school speedily became the nursery of veterinary science, and the souree whence all similar institutions obtained their first teachers and their guidance. A third government school was founded in 1825 at Toulouse; and these three schools have produced thousands of thoroughly educated veterinary surgeons and many professors of high scientific repute, among whom may be named Bouley, Chauveau, Colin, Toussaint, St Cyr, Goubaux, Arloing, Galtier, Nocard, Trasbot, Neumann, Cadiot and Leclainche. The opening of the Alfort school was followed by the establishment of national schools in Italy (Turin, 1769), Denmark emcees 1773), Austria (Vienna, 1775), Saxony (Dresden, 1776), Prussia (Hanover, 1778; Berlin, 1790), Bavaria (Munich, 1790), Hungary (Budapest, 1787) and Spain (Madrid, 1793); and soon government veterinary schools were founded in nearly every European country, except Great Britain and Greece, mostly on a munificent scale. Probably all, but especially those of France and Germany, were established as much with a view to training veterinary surgeons for the ae as for the requirements of civil life. In 1907 France possessed three national veterinary schools, Germany had six, Russia four (Kharkov, Dorpat, Kazan and Warsaw), Italy six, Spain five, Austria-Hunga three (Vienna, Budapest and Lemberg), Switzerland two (Ziiric and Bern), Sweden two (Skara and Stockholm), Denmark, Holland, Belgium and Portugal one each. In 1849 ~ government veterinary 4 VETERINARY SCIENCE school was established at Constantinople, and in 1861 the govern- ment of Rumania founded a school at Bucharest. The veterinary schools of Berlin, Hanover and Vienna have been raised to the position of universities. ; In 1790 St Bel (whose real name was Vial, St Bel being a village near Lyons, where was his paternal estate), after studying at the Lyons school and teaching both at Alfort and Lyons, came Sida to England and publishe Pee Sabin for founding a school gdom- i which to instruct pupils in veterinary medicine and surgery. The Agricultural Society of Odiham, which had been . meditating sending two young men to the Alfort school, elected him an honorary member, and delegated a committee to consult with him respecting his scheme. Some time afterwards this committee detached themselves from the Odiham Society and formed an institution styled the Veterinary College of London, of which St Bel was appointed professor. The school was to be commenced and maintained by private subscription. In March 1792 arrange- ments were made for building temporary stabling for fifty horses and a forge for shoeing at St Pancras. The college made rapid progress in public estimation, notwithstanding considerable pecuniary embarrassments. As soon as the building was ready for the recep- tion of animal patients, pupils began to be enrolled; and among the earliest were some who afterwards gained celebrity as veterinarians, as Bloxam, Blaine, R. Lawrence, Field and Bracy Clark. On the death of St Bel in August 1793 there appears to have been some difficulty in procuring a suitable successor; but at length, on the recommendation of John Hunter and Cline, two medical men were appointed, Coleman and Moorcroft, the latter then practising as a veterinary surgeon in London. The first taught anatomy and physiology, and Moorcroft, after visiting the French schools, directed the practical portion of the teaching. Unfortunately, neither of these teachers had much experience among animals, nor were they well acquainted with their diseases; but Coleman (1765-1839) had as a student, in conjunction with a fellow-student (afterwards Sir Astley Cooper), performed many experiments on animals under the direction of Cline. Moorcroft, who remained only a short time at the college, afterwards went to India, and during a journey in 1819 was murdered in Tibet. Coleman, by his scientific researches and energetic management, in a few years raised the college to a high standard of usefulness; under his care the progress of the veterinary art was such as to qualify its practitioners to hold commissions in the army; and he himself was appointed veterinary surgeon- general to the British cavalry. In 1831 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. Owing to the lack of funds, the teaching at the college must have been very meagre, and had it not been for the liberality of several medical men in throwing open the doors of their theatres to its pupils for instruction without fee or reward, their professional kuowledge would have been sadly deficient. The board of examiners was for many years chiefly composed of eminent members of the medical profession. Coleman died in 1839, and with him disappeared much of the interest the medical Sesion of London took in the progress of veterinary medicine. et the Royal Veterinary College Girt styled “‘ Royal ” during the presidentship of the duke of Kent) continued to do good work in a purely veterinary direction, and received such public financial support that it was soon able to dispense with the sinall annual grant given to it by the government. In the early years of the institution the horse was the only animal to which much attention was given. But at the instigation of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, which gave {200 per annum for the purpose, an addi- tional professor was appointed to investigate and teach the treatment of the diseases of cattle, sheep and other animals; outbreaks of disease among these were also to be inquired into by the officers of the college. This help to the institution was withdrawn in 1875, but renewed and augmented in 1886. For fifteen years the Royal Agricultural Society annually voted a sum of {500 towards the expenses of the department of comparative pathology, but in 1902 this grant was reduced to £200. As the result of representations made to the senate of the uni- versity of London by the governors of the Royal Veterinary College, the university in 1906 instituted a degree in veterinary science (B.Sc.). The possession of this degree does not of itself entitle the holder to practise as a veterinary surgeon, but it was hoped that an increasing number of students would, while studying for the diploma of ‘he Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons, also adopt the curriculum which is necessary to qualify for the university examina- tions and obtain the degree of bachelor of science. To provide equipment for the higher studies required for the university degree, the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries in 1906 made a grant to the college of £800 per annum. At this school post-graduate instruc- tion is givenon the principles of bacteriological research, vaccination and protective inoculation, the preparation of toxins and vaccines and the bacteriology of the specific diseases of animals. The London Veterinary School has been the parent of other schools in Great Britain, one of which, the first in Scotland, was founded by Professor Dick, a student under Coleman, and a man of great per- severance and ability. Beginning at Edinburgh in 1819-20 with only one student, in three years he gained the patronage of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, which placed a smail sum of money at the disposal of a committee appointed by itself to take charge of a department of veterinary surgery it had formed. This patronage, and very much in the way of material assistance and encouragement, were continued to the time of Dick's death in 1866. During the long period in which he presided over the school considerable progress was made in diffusing a sound knowledge of veterinary medicine in Scotland and beyond it For many years his examining board, which gave certificates of proficiency under the auspices of the Highland and Agricultural Society, was composed of the most distinguished medical men in Scotland, such as Goodsir, Syme, Lizars, Ballingall, Simpson and Knox. By his will Dick vested the college in the lord provost and town council of Edinburgh as trustees, and left a large portion of the fortune he had made to maintain it for the purposes for which it was founded. In 1859 another vera school was established in Edinburgh by John Gamgee, and the Veterinary College, Glasgow, was founded in 1863 by James McCall. Gamgee’s school was discontinued in 1865; and William Williams established in 1873 the ‘‘ New Veterinary College,” Edinburgh. This school was transferred in 1904 to the Wane, Liverpool. In 1900 a veterinary school was founded in ublin. _In 1844 the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons (to be carefully distinguished from the Reyal Veterinary College) obtained its charter of incorporation. The functions of this body were until 1881 limited almost entirely to examining students taught in the veterinary schools, and bestowing diplomas of membership on those who successfully passed the examinations conducted by the boards which sat in London and Edinburgh. Soon after the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons obtained its charter of incorporation, a difference arose between the college and Dick, which resulted in the latter seceding altogether from the union that had been established, and forming an independent examining board, the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland granting certificates of proficiency to those students who were deemed competent. This schism operated very injuriously on the progress of veterinary education and on professional advancement, as the competition engendered was of a rather deteriorating nature. After the death of Dick in 1866, the dualism in veterinary licensing was suppressed and the Highland Society ceased to grant certificates. Now there is only one portal of entry into the profession,and the veterinary students of England, Ireland and Scotland must satisfy the examiners appointed by the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons before they can practise their profession. Before beginning their professional studies students of veterinary medicine must pass an examination in general education equivalent in every respect to that required of students of human medicine. The minimum length of the professional training is four years of three terms each, and during that course four searching examinations must be passed before the student obtains his diploma or licence to poe as a veterinary surgeon. The subjects taught in the schools ave been increased in numbers conformably with the requirements of ever extending science, and the teaching is more thorough and Pacticel. During the four years’ curriculum, besides the pre- iminary technical training essential to every scientist, the student must study the anatomy and physiology of the domesticated animals, the pathology and bacteriology of the diseases to which these animals are exposed, medicine, surgery, hygiene, dietetics and meat inspec- tion, and learn to know the results of disease as seen post mortem or in the slaughter-house. In 1881 an act of parliament was obtained protecting the title of the graduates of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons and conferring other advantages, not the least of which is the power granted to the college to remove the names of unworthy members from its register. In some respects the Veterinary Surgeons Act is superior to the Medical Act, while it places the profession on the same level as other learned bodies, and prevents the public being misled by empirics and imposters. In 1876 the college instituted a higher degree than membership— that of fellow (F.R.C.V.S.), which can only be obtained after the graduate has been five years in practice, and by furnishing a thesis and passing a severe written and oral examination on pathology and bacteriology, hygiene and sanitary science, and veterinary medicine and surgery. Only fellows can be elected members of the examining boards for the membership and fellowship diplomas. The graduates of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons registered from its foundation in 1844 until 1907 numbered about 6000. In the British army a veterinary service was first instituted at the beginning of the 19th century, when veterinary surgeons with the relative rank of lieutenant were appointed to regiments of cavalry, the royal artillery and the royal wagon train. After the Crimean War, and consequent on the abolition of the East India Company (which then possessed its own veterinary service), the number of veterinary surgeons employed was increased, and in 1878 they were constituted a “ department, "’ with distinctive uniform, instead of being regimental officers as was previously the case. At the same time they were all brought on to a general roster for foreign service, so that every one in turn has to serve abroad. In 1903 the officers of the department were given substantive rank, and in 1904 were constituted a “ corps,’ with a small number of non-commissioned officers and men under their command and specially trained by them. In 1907 the Army Veterinary Corps consisted of 167 officers and 220 VETERINARY SCIENCE rE non-commissioned officers and men. The men are stationed at the veterinary hospitals, Woolwich depot, Aldershot, Bulford and the Curragh, but when trained are available for duty under veterinary offieers at any station, and a proportion _of them are employed at the various hospitals in South Africa. Owing to their liability to service abroad in rotation, it follows that every officer spends a considerable portion of his service in India, Burma, Egypt or South Africa. Each tour abroad is five years, and the average length of service abroad is about one-half the total. This offers a wide and varied field for the professional activities of the corps, but naturally entails a corresponding strain on the individuals. Commissions as lieutenants are obtained by examination, the candidates having previously qualified as members of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons. Promotion to captain and major is granted at five and fifteen years’ service respectively, and subsequently, by selection, to lieutenant-colonel and colonel, as vacancies occur. The director- general has the honorary rank of major-general. The Indian civil veterinary department was at first recruited from the A. V. Corps, but candidates who qualified as members of India the R.C.V.S. were subsequently granted direct appoint- P ments by the India Office, by selection. The service is paid and pensioned on the lines of the other Indian civil services, and offers an excellent professional career to those whose constitu- tion permits them to live in the tropics. The work comprises the investigation of discase in animals and the management of studs and farms, in addition to the clinical practice which falls to the share of all veterinary surgeons. In India there are schools for the training of natives as veterinary surgeons in Bombay, Lahore, Ajmere and Bengal. The courses extend over two and three years, and the instruction is very thorough. The professors are officers of the Indian civil veterinary depart- ment, and graduates are given subordinate appointments in that service, or find ready employment in the native cavalry or in civil life. In the United States of America, veterinary science made very slow progress until 1884, when the Bureau of Animal Industry Unned was established in connexion with the Department of eae Agriculture at Washington. The immediate cause of the Shad formation of the bureau was the urgent need by the Federal government of official information concerning the nature and prevalence of animal diseases, and of the means required to control and eradicate them, and also the necessity of having an executive agency to carry out the measures necessary to stop the spread of disease and to prevent the importation of contagion into the country, as well as to conduct investigations through which further knowledge might be obtained. In 1907 the bureau consisted of ten divisions, employing the services of 815 veterinary surgeons. It deals with the investigation, control and eradication of contagious diseases of animals, the inspection and quarantine of live stock, horse-breeding, experiments in feeding, diseases of poultry and the inspection of meat and dairy produce. It makes original investiga- tions as to the nature, cause and prevention of communicable diseases of live stock, and takes measures for their repression, frequently in conjunction with state and territorial authorities. It prepares tuberculin and mallein, and supplies these substances free of charge to public health officers, conducts experiments with immunizing agents, and prepares vaccines, sera and antitoxins for the protection of animals against disease. It prepares and publishes ports of scientific investigations and treatises on various subjects relating to live stock. The diseases which claim most attention are Texas fever, sheep scab, cattle mange, venereal disease of horses, tuberculosis of cattle and pigs, hog cholera, glanders, anthrax, black-quarter, and parasitic diseases of cattle, sheep and horses. The Btect of the work of the bureau on the health and value of farm animals and their products is well known, and the people of the United States now realize the immense importance of veterinary science. Veterinary schools were established in New York City in 1846, Boston in 1848, Chicago in 1883, and subsequently in Kansas City and elsewhere, but these, like those of Great Britain, were rivate institutions, The American Veterinary College, N.Y., ounded in 1875, is connected with New York University, and the N.Y. State Veterinary College forms a department of Cornell University at Ithaca. Other veterinary schools attached to state universities or agricultural colleges are those in Philadelphia, Pa.; Columbus, Ohio; Ames, Iowa; Pullman, Washington; Auburn, Alabama; Manhattan, Kansas; and Fort Collins, Colorado. Other veterinary colleges are in San Francisco; Washington, D.C. (two); Grand Rapids, Michigan; St Joseph, Missouri; and Cincinnati, Ohio. In Canada a veterinary schocl was founded at Toronto in 1862, and four years later another school was established at Montreal. Ganetin For some years the Montreal school formed a department * of McGill University, but in 1902 the veterinary branch was discontinued. Veterinary instruction in French is given by the faculty of comparative medicine at Laval University. The Canadian Department of Agriculture possesses a fully eqmiaped veterinary sanitary service employing about 400 qualified veterinary surgeons as inspectors of live stock, meat and dairy produce. In the Australian commonwealth there is only cne veterinary school, which was established in Melbourne, Victoria, in 1888. The Public Health Departments of New South Wales, Western Australia, Tasmania and the other statesemploy “#%*ralla. qualified veterinary surgeons as inspectors of live stock, cowsheds, meat and dairy produce, There is no veterinary school in New Zealand, but the Depart- ment of Agriculture has arranged to establish one at Wellington in connexion with the investigation laboratory and farm of the division of veterinary science at Wallaceville. The a government employs about forty qualified veterinarians paren as inspectors of live stock, abattoirs, meat-works and dairics. In Egypt a veterinary school with French teachers was founded in 1830 at Abu-Zabel, near Cairo, by Clot-Bey, a doctor of medicine. This school was discontinued in 1842. The Public Health " Department in 1901 established at Cairo a new veterina Eaypt. school for the instruction of natives. Ten qualaed veterinary surgeons are employed in the sanitary service. h of the colonies Natal, Cape Colony, Transvaal, Orange River Colony, Swaziland, Bechuanaland and Rhodesia has a veterinary sanitary police service. Seeeeed in dealing with the South contagious diseases of animals. Laboratories for the Aeica investigation of disease and the preparation of antitoxins and Poteet ive sera have been established at Grahamstown, Pretoria and Pietermaritzburg. Characteristics of Veterinary Medicine. Veterinary medicine has been far less exposed to the vagaries of theoretical doctrines and systems than human medicine. The explanation may perhaps be that the successful practice of this branch of medicine more clearly than in any other depends upon the careful observation of facts and the rational deductions to be made therefrom. No special doctrines seem, in later times at least, to have been adopted, and the dominating sentiment in regard to disease and its treatment has been a medical eclecticism, based on practical experience and anatomico- pathological investigation, rarely indeed on philosophical or abstract theories. In this way veterinary science has become pre-eminently a science of observation. At times indeed it has to some extent been influenced by the doctrines which have controlled the practice of human medicine—such as those of Broussais, Hahnemann, Brown, Rasori, Rademacher and others —yet this has not been for long: experience of them when tested upon dumb unimaginative animals soon exposed their fallacies and compelled their discontinuance. Of more moment than the cure of disease is its prevention, and this is now considered the most important object in con- nexion with veterinary science. More especially is this the case with those contagious disorders that depend for their existence and extension upon the presence of an infecting agent, and whose ravages for so many centuries are written largely in the history of civilization. Every advance made in human medicine affects the progress of veterinary science, and the invaluable investigations of Davaine, Pasteur, Chauveau, Lister and Koch have created as great a revolution in veterinary prac- tice as in the medicine of man. In “ preventive medicine ” the benefits derived from the application of the germ theory are now realized to be immense; and the sanitary police measures based on this knowledge, if carried rigorously into operation, must eventually lead to the extinction of animal plagues. Bacteriology has thrown much light on the nature, diagnosis and cure of disease both in man and animals, and it has developed the beneficent practice of aseptic and antiseptic surgery, enabling the practitioner to prevent exhausting suppuration and wound infection with its attendant septic fever, to ensure the rapid healing of wounds, and to undertake the more serious operations with greater confidence of a success- ful result. The medicine of the lower animals differs from that of man in no particular so much, perhaps, as in the application it makes of utilitarian principles.’ The life of man is sacred; but in the case of animals, when there are doubts as to complete restora- tion to health or usefulness, pecuniary considerations gener- ally decide against the adoption of remedial measures. This feature in the medicine of domesticated animals brings very prominently before us the value of the old adage that ‘‘ pre- vention is better than cure.” In Great Britain the value of 6 VETERINARY SCIENCE veterinary pathology in the relations it bears to human medicine, to the public health and wealth, as well as to agriculture, has not been sufficiently appreciated; and in consequence but little allowance has been made for the difficulties with which the practitioner of animal medicine has to contend. The rare instances in which animals can be seen by the veterinary surgeon in the earliest stages of disease, and when this would prove most amenable to medical treatment; delay, generally due to the inability of those who have the care of animals to perceive these early stages; the fact that animals cannot, except in a negative manner, tell their woes, describe their sensations or indicate what and where they suffer; the absence of those comforts and conveniences of the sick-room which cannot be called in to ameliorate their condition; the violence or stupor, as well as the attitude and structural peculiarities of the sick creatures, which only too frequently render favourable positions for recovery impossible; the slender means generally afforded for carrying out recommendations, together with the oftentimes intractable nature of their diseases; and the utilitarian in- fluences alluded to above—all these considerations, in the great majority of instances, militate against the adoption of curative treatment, or at least greatly increase its difficulties. But notwithstanding these difficulties, veterinary science has made greater strides since 1877 than at any previous period in its history. Every branch of veterinary knowledge has shared in this advance, but in none has the progress been so marked as in the domain of pathology, led by Nocard in France, Schiitz and Kitt in Germany, Bang in Denmark, and McFadyean in England. Bacteriological research has discovered new dis- eases, has revolutionized the views formerly held regarding many others, and has pointed the way to new methods of prevention and cure. Tuberculosis, anthrax, black-quarter, glanders, strangles and tetanus furnish ready examples of the progress of knowledge concerning the nature and causation of disease. ‘These diseases, formerly attributed to the most varied causes—including climatic changes, dietetic errors, peculiar condition of the tissues, heredity, exposure, close breeding, overcrowding and even spontaneous origin—have been proved beyond the possibility of doubt to be due to infection by specific bacteria or germs. In the United Kingdom veterinary science has gained distinc- tion by the eradication of contagious animal diseases. For many years prior to 1865, when a government veterinary department was formed, destructive plagues of animals had prevailed almost continuously in the British islands, and scarcely any attempt had been made to check or extirpate them. Two exotic bovine diseases alone (contagious pleuro-pneumonia or lung plague and foot-and-mouth disease) are estimated to have caused the death, during the first thirty years of their prevalence in the United Kingdom, of 5,549,780 cattle, roughly valued at £83,616,854; while the invasion of cattle plague (rinderpest) in 1865-66 was calculated to have caused a money loss of from {5,000,000 to £8,000,000. The depredations made in South Africa and Australia by the lung plague alone are quite appalling; and in India the loss brought about by contagious diseases among animals has been stated at not less than {6,000,000 annually. The damage done by tuberculosis—a contagious disease of cattle, transmissible to other animals and to man by means of the milk and flesh of diseased beasts— cannot be even guessed at; but it must be enormous considering how widely this malady is diffused. But that terrible pest of all ages, cattle plague, has been promptly suppressed in England with comparatively trifling loss. Foot-and-mouth disease, which frequently proved a heavy infliction to agriculture, has been completely extirpated. Rabies may now be included, with rinderpest, lung plague and sheep-pox, in the category of extinct diseases; and new measures have been adopted for the suppression of glanders and swine fever. To combat such diseases as depend for their continuance on germs derived from the soil or herbage, which cannot be directly controlled by veterinary sanitary measures, recourse has been had to pro- tective inoculation with attenuated virus or antitoxic sera. The Board of Agriculture and Fisheries has an efficient staff of trained veterinary inspectors, who devote their whele time to the work in connexion with the scheduled diseases of animals, and are frequently employed to inquire into other diseases of an apparently contagious nature, where the circumstances are of general importance to agriculturists. Veterinary science can offer much assistance in the study and prevention of the diseases to which mankind are liable. Some grave maladies of the human species are certainly derived from animals, and others may yet be added to the list. In the training of the physician great benefit would be derived from the study of disease in animals—a fact which has been strangely overlooked in England, as those can testify who understand how closely the health of man may depend upon the health of the creatures he has domesticated and derives subsistence from, and how much more advantageously morbid processes can be studied in animals than in our own species. Although as yet few chairs of comparative pathology have been established in British universities, on the European continent such chairs are now looked upon as almost indis- pensable to every university. Bourgelat, towards the middle of the 18th century, in speaking of the veterinary schools he had been instrumental in forming, urged that “leurs portes soient sans cesse ouvertes 4 ceux qui, chargés par l'état de la conservation des hommes, auront acquis par le nom qu’ils se seront fait le droit d’interroger la nature, chercher des analogies, et vérifier des idées dont la conformation ne peut étre qu’utile 4 l’espéce humaine.”” And the benefits to be mutually derived from this association of the two branches of medicine inspired Vicq d’Azyr to elaborate his Nouveau plon de la constitution de la médecine en France, which he presented to the National Assembly in 1790. His fundamental] idea was to make veterinary teaching a preliminary (le premier degré) and, as it were, the principle of instruction in human medicine. His proposal went so far as to insist upon a veterinary school being annexed to every medical college established in France. This idea was reproduced in the Rapport sur linstruction publique which Tallevrand read before the National Assembly in 1790. In this project veterinary teaching was to form part of the National Institution at Paris. The idea was to initiate students of medicine into a knowledge of diseases by observing those of animals. The suffering animal always appears exactly as it is and feels, without the intervention of mind obscuring the symptomatology, the symptoms being really and truly the rigorous expression of its diseased condition. From this point of view, the dumb animal, when it is ill, offers the same diffi- culties in diagnosis as does the ailing infant or the comatose adult. : Of the other objects of veterinary science there is only one to which allusion need- here be made: that is the perfectioning of the domestic animals in everything that is likely to make them more valuable to man. This is in an especial manner the province of this science, the knowledge of the anatomy, physiology and other matters connected with these animals by its students being essential for such improvement. Diseases of Domestic Animals. Considerations of space forbid a complete or detailed descrip- tion of all the diseases, medical and surgical, to which the domesticated arimals are liable. Separate articles are devoted to the principal plagues, or murrains, which affect animals— RINDERPEST, Foot-anD-MoutH DISEASE, PLEURO-PNEUMONIA, ANTHRAX, &c. Reference will be made here only to the more important other disorders of animals which are of a communic- able nature. Diseases of the Horse. Every horseman should know something of the injuries, lame- nesses and diseases to which the horse is liable. Unforcunaien not very much can be done in this direction by book instruction; indeed, there is generally too much doctoring and too little nursing of sick animals. Even in slight and favourable cases of illness recovery is often retarded by too zealous and injudicious medication; the object to be always kept in view in the treatment of animal patients is to place them in those conditions which allow nature to VETERINARY SCIENCE 7 operate most freely in restoring health. This can best be rendered in the form of nursing, which sick animals greatly appreciate. How- ever indifferent a horse ma be to caressing or kind atten- Nursing. tion during health, when ill he certainly appreciates both, and when in pain will often apparently endeavour to attract notice and seek relief from those with whom he is familiar. Fresh air and cleanliness, quiet and comfort, should always be secured, if possible. The stable or loose-box should be warm, without being close, and free from draughts. If the weather is cold, and especially if the horse is suffering from inflammation of the air-passages, it may be necessary to keep up the temperature by artificial means; but great care should be taken that this does not render the air too dry to breathe. The surface of the body can be kept warm by rugs, and the legs by woollen bandages. Yet a sick horse is easily fatigued and annoyed by too much clothing, and therefore it is better to resort to artificial er sed of the stable than to overload the body or impede movement by heavy wrappings. If blankets are used, it is well to place a cotton or linen sheet under them, should the horse have an irritable skin. For bedding, long straw should be employed as little as possible, since it hampers movement. Clean old litter, sawdust or peat-moss litter is the best. If the hoofs are strong, and the horse likely to be confined for some weeks, it affords relief to take off the shoes. J yi0g up should be, avoided, if possible, unless it is urgently required, the horse being allowed to move about or lie down as he may prefer. When a sick horse has lost his appetite, he should be tempted to eat by offering him such food as will be enticing to hin. It should e Foodfor he forced on him; food will often be taken if offered from a sick the hand, when it will not be eaten out of the manger. Fs Whether the animal be fed from a bucket or from a manger, any food that is left should be thrown away, and the receptacle well cleaned out after each meal. As a rule, during sickness a horse requires laxative food, in order to allay fever or inflammatory symptoms, while supporting the strength. The following list comprises the usual laxative foods employed: green grass, green wheat, oats and barley, lucerne, carrots, parsnips, ruel, bran mash, linseed and bran mash, boiled barley, linseed tea, ay tea and linseed oil. Green grass, lucerne, and similar articles of food if cut when in a